“Recent Advances in the Understanding and Management of Hyperlipidemia: A Comprehensive Review”
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.48047/dyc25s84Keywords:
Hyperlipidemia, Risk Factors, Diagnosis, Lifestyle, Strategies, AdvancementAbstract
Hyperlipidemia has historically been an abnormal condition in which plasm lipoproteins carrying triglycerides, cholesterol, and phospholipids increase to their normal range. This elevation in lipoproteins leads to the risk of cardiovascular diseases including stroke cardiac arrest, atherosclerosis, and other metabolic disorders. It lowers levels of High-Density Lipoprotein while raising Low-Density Lipoprotein levels. There are two forms of hyperlipidemia, Primary and Secondary. The main contributory factor of Primary hyperlipidemia is a genetic disorder called familial, and Secondary hyperlipidemia is due to health conditions like hypothyroidism, obesity, diabetes, long-term alcohol use, and beta-blockers medication use. This medical condition can be managed by a change in lifestyle in combination with pharmacotherapy to control lipid levels. Additionally, with conventional treatment, drug delivery technique innovation has a major influence on hyperlipidemia treatment. This review article focuses on this disease and various forms of hypolipidemic drugs and also covers topics including symptoms, pathophysiology, risk factors, and management. Treatment and prevention strategies include diagnosis, prescribed medication, increased physical activity, eating a healthy diet, monitoring, medical therapy, and reassessing. There has been discussion of recent advancements in new research on diagnosing and managing this disorder. Future directions, for novel drug technology are discussed as well to provide more ideas for improving the safety and treatment of patients.
Downloads
References
Goodman Gilman. Eds. The pharmacological basis of therapeutics. Macmillan Publishing Company, New York; 1970
Hassan B. Overview on Hyperlipidemia. J Chromat Separation Techniq, 2013; 4:2.
Dhuley J, Naik SR, Rele S, Banerji A. Pharm Pharmacol Commun,1999; 5:689.
Joseph, D. Pharmacotherapy, A pathophysiological approach, 8thedn, The McGraw Hill companies, Inc. 2011; pp370.
Onwe, P. E.; Folawiyo, M. A.; Anyigor-Ogah, C. S.; Umahi, G.; Okorocha, A. E.; and Afoke, A. (2015): Hyperlipidemia: etiology and possible control. IOSR J. Dent. Med. Sci, 14: 93-100
Lipman TH, Hayman LL, Fabian CV, DiFazio DA, Hale PM, Goldsmith BM, et al. Risk factors for cardiovascular disease in children with type I diabetes. Nurs Res 2000;49:160-166.
Bhatnagar D, Soran H, Durrington PN. Hypercholesterolaemia and its management. Bmj. 2008;337.
S. Karr, “Epidemiology and management of hyperlipidemia,” The American Journal of Managed Care, vol. 23, 9 Supplement, pp. S139–S148, 2017
P. Libby, J. E. Buring, L. Badimon et al., “Atherosclerosis,” Nature Reviews Disease Primers, vol. 5, no. 1, 2019.
Amal Umran Mosa, Iman Hussein Naser, Zahraa Abd Alkareem et al. Hyperlipidemia: pathophysiology, causes, complications, and treatment. Kerbala journal of pharmacy and pharmaceutical science 01/07/2021 A review 3
Folawiyo MA., Anyigor-Ogah CS., Umahi G., Okorocha AE, Afoke AO et al. Hyperlipidemia: Etiology and Possible Control. Journal of Dental and Medical Sciences 2015: 14(10) ; 93-100
Natesan V., Kim S. J. Diabetic nephropathy - a review of risk factors, progression, mechanism, and dietary management. Biomol. Ther. (Seoul) 2021;29:365–372.
Verma N. Introduction to hyperlipidemia and its treatment: a review. Int. J. Curr. Pharm. Res. 2017;9:6–14.
Haake, D.A.; Zückert, W.R. Spirochetal Lipoproteins in Pathogenesis and Immunity. Curr. Top. Microbiol. Immunol. 2018, 415, 239–271.
Chiou, K.-R.; Charng, M.-J. Common mutations of familial hypercholesterolemia patients in Taiwan: Characteristics and implications of migrations from southeast China. Gene 2012, 498, 100–106.
Slack, J. Risks of Ischaemic Heart-Disease in Familial Hyperlipoproteinaemic States. Lancet 1969, 2, 1380–1382.
Stone, N.J.; Levy, R.I.; Fredrickson, D.S.; Verter, J. Coronary Artery Disease in 116 Kindred with Familial Type II Hyperlipoproteinemia. Circulation 1974, 49, 476–488.
National Cholesterol Education Program (NCEP): Highlights of the Report of the Expert Panel on Blood Cholesterol Levels in Children and Adolescents. Pediatrics 1992, 89, 495–501.
Expert Panel on Integrated Guidelines for Cardiovascular Health and Risk Reduction in Children and Adolescents. National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute Expert Panel on Integrated Guidelines for Cardiovascular Health and Risk Reduction in Children and Adolescents: Summary Report. Pediatrics 2011, 128 (Suppl. S5), S213–S256.
Lobelo, F.; Muth, N.D.; Hanson, S.; Nemeth, B.A.; LaBella, C.R.; Brooks, M.A.; Canty, G.; Diamond, A.B.; Hennrikus, W.; Logan, K.; et al. Physical Activity Assessment and Counseling in Pediatric Clinical Settings. Pediatrics 2020, 145, e20193992.
West, S.L.; Banks, L.; Schneiderman, J.E.; Caterini, J.E.; Stephens, S.; White, G.; Dogra, S.; Wells, G.D. Physical Activity for Children with Chronic Disease; a Narrative Review and Practical Applications. BMC Pediatr. 2019, 19, 12.
Drewnowski A, Darmon N. The economics of obesity: dietary energy density and energy cost. Am J Clin Nutr 2005;82:265S-73S.
Du S, Mroz TA, Zhai F, Popkin BM. Rapid income growth adversely affect diet quality in China- particularly for the poor! Soc Sci Med 2004;59:1505-15.
Huang, M.; Zheng, J.; Chen, L.; You, S.; Huang, H. Role of apolipoproteins in the pathogenesis of obesity. Clin. Chim. Acta Int. J. Clin. Chem. 2023, 545, 117359.
Wattigney, W.A.; Harsha, D.W.; Srinivasan, S.R.; Webber, L.S.; Berenson, G.S. Increasing Impact of Obesity on Serum Lipids and Lipoproteins in Young Adults. The Bogalusa Heart Study. Arch. Intern. Med. 1991, 151, 2017–2022.
Kavey, R.-E.W.; Allada, V.; Daniels, S.R.; Hayman, L.L.; McCrindle, B.W.; Newburger, J.W.; Parekh, R.S.; Steinberger, J.; American Heart Association Expert Panel on Population and Prevention Science; American Heart Association Council on Cardiovascular Disease in the Young; et al. Cardiovascular Risk Reduction in High-Risk Pediatric Patients: A Scientific Statement from the American Heart Association Expert Panel on Population and Prevention Science; the Councils on Cardiovascular Disease in the Young, Epidemiology and Prevention, Nutrition, Physical Activity and Metabolism, High Blood Pressure Research, Cardiovascular Nursing, and the Kidney in Heart Disease; and the Interdisciplinary Working Group on Quality of Care and Outcomes Research. Circulation 2006, 114, 2710–2738.
Lippi, G.; Targher, G.; Salvagno, G.L.; Montagnana, M.; Franchini, M.; Guidi, G.C. Lipoproteins (a) and ageing. Clin. Lab. 2010, 56, 463–466.
Ferguson TS, Younger NO, Tulloch-Reid MK, Wright MB, Ward EM, Ashley DE, et al. Prevalence of prehypertension and its relationship to risk factors for cardiovascular disease in Jamaica: analysis from a cross-sectional survey. BMC cardiovascular disorders. 2008;8:20.
Hosey GM, Samo M, Gregg EW, Padden D, Bibb SG. Socioeconomic and demographic predictors of selected cardiovascular risk factors among adults living in Pohnpei, Federated States of Micronesia. BMC Public Health. 2014;14(1):895.
Pilic L, Pedlar CR, Mavrommatis Y. Salt-sensitive hypertension: mechanisms and effects of dietary and other lifestyle factors. Nutrition reviews. 2016;74(10):645–58.
Wilson MD, Conroy LM, Dorevitch S. Occupational stress and subclinical atherosclerosis: a systematic review. International journal of occupational and environmental health. 2014;20(4):271–80.
Finney C, Stergiopoulos E, Hensel J, Bonato S, Dewa CS. Organizational stressors associated with job stress and burnout in correctional officers: a systematic review. BMC Public Health. 2013;13:82. Epub 2013/01/30.
J. P. Halcox, J. R. Banegas, C. Roy et al., “Prevalence and treatment of atherogenic dyslipidemia in the primary prevention of cardiovascular disease in Europe: EURIKA, a cross-sectional observational study,” BMC Cardiovascular Disorders, vol. 17, no. 1, 2017.
Vijayaraj PS, Muthukumar K, Sabarirajan J, Naciappan V. Indian Journal of Biochemistry and biophysics, 2011; 48:54-58.
Davey Smith G and Pekkanen J. Br Med J, 1992; 304:431-440
Amit G, Vandana S, Sidharth M. HYPERLIPIDEMIA: An Updated Review. Inter J of Biopharma & Toxicol Res 2011;1:81-89.
Shattat GF. A review article on hyperlipidemia: types, treatments and new drug targets. Biomedical and pharmacology journal. 2015;7(1):399-409
Reitsma, S.; Slaaf, D.W.; Vink, H.; van Zandvoort, M.A.M.J.; Oude Egbrink, M.G. The endothelial glycocalyx: Composition, functions, and visualization. Pflug. Arch. Eur. J. Physiol. 2007, 454, 345–359.
A Review Article on Hyperlipidemia: Types, Treatments and New Drug Targets GHASSAN F. SHATTAT College of Science and Health Professions, King Saud Bin Biomedical & Pharmacology Journal 2014; 7(2), 399-409
Niharika Verma. Introduction to hyperlipidemia and its treatment: a review. Int J Curr Pharm Res 2016; 9(1): 6- 14
Gao W, He HW, Wang ZM, Zhao H, Lian XQ, Wang YS, Zhu J, Yan JJ, Zhang DG, Yang ZJ, Wang LS. Plasma levels of lipometabolism-related miR-122 and miR-370 are increased in patients with hyperlipidemia and associated with coronary artery disease. Lipids Health Dis. 2012 May 15;11:55.
Gao W, He HW, Wang ZM, Zhao H, Lian XQ, Wang YS, Zhu J, Yan JJ, Zhang DG, Yang ZJ, Wang LS. Plasma levels of lipometabolism-related miR-122 and miR-370 are increased in patients with hyperlipidemia and associated with coronary artery disease. Lipids Health Dis. 2012 May 15;11:55.
Amarenco P, Labreuche J. Lipid management in the prevention of stroke: review and updated meta-analysis of statins for stroke prevention. Lancet Neurol. 2009 May;8(5):453-63.
Kullo IJ, Rooke TW. CLINICAL PRACTICE. Peripheral Artery Disease. N Engl J Med. 2016;374:861–871.
Nickolas TL, Radhakrishnan J, Appel GB et al. Hyperlipidemia and thrombotic complications in patients with membranous nephropathy. Semin Nephrol 2003; 23: 406-11.
Coskun A, Erkan N, Yakan S, Yildirim M, Carti E, Ucar D, et al. Treatment of hypertriglyceridemia-induced acute pancreatitis with insulin. Gastroenterol Rev. 2015;1:18–22.
Baranyai T, Terzin V, Vajda Á, Wittmann T, Czakó L. Hypertriglyceridemia causes more severe course of acute pancreatitis. Clin Lipidol. 2012 Dec 1;7(6):731–6.
Sarac S, Atamer A, Atamer Y, Can AS, Bilici A, Tacyildiz I, et al. Leptin levels and lipoprotein profiles in patients with cholelithiasis. J Int Med Res. 2015; 43:385–92
Harish B. A cross sectional study on causes and risk factors of gallstone disease among patients with symptomatic cholelithiasis. Int J Nurs Res Pract 2014;1:20-4.
Channa NA, Khand F, Ghanghro AB, Soomro AM. Quantitative analysis of serum lipid profile in gallstone patients and controls. Pak J Anal Environ Chem 2010;11:59-65.
Edeoga HO, Okwu DE, Mbaebie BO. Phytochemical constituents of some Nigerian medicinal plants. African journal of biotechnology. 2005 Aug 19;4(7):685-8.
Cunningham AB. An investigation of the herbal medicine trade in Natal/KwaZulu. Institute of Natural Resources, University of Natal; 1988.
Fredrickson DS. An international classification of hyperlipidemias and hyperlipoproteinemias. Ann Intern Med. 1971 Sep;75(3):471-2.
Vodnala D, Rubenfire M, Brook RD. Secondary causes of dyslipidemia. Am J Cardiol. 2012 Sep 15;110(6):823-5.
Fiorentino, R.; Chiarelli, F. Treatment of Dyslipidaemia in Children. Biomedicines 2021, 9, 1078.
Delgado-Lista, J.; Alcala-Diaz, J.F.; Torres-Peña, J.D.; Quintana-Navarro, G.M.; Fuentes, F.; Garcia-Rios, A.; Ortiz-Morales, A.M.; Gonzalez-Requero, A.I.; Perez-Caballero, A.I.; Yubero-Serrano, E.M.; et al. Long-Term Secondary Prevention of Cardiovascular Disease with a Mediterranean Diet and a Low-Fat Diet (CORDIOPREV): A Randomised Controlled Trial. Lancet 2022, 399, 1876–1885.
Estruch R., Ros E., Salas-Salvadó J., Covas M. I., Corella D., Arós F., Gómez-Gracia E., Ruiz-Gutiérrez V., Fiol M., Lapetra J., Lamuela-Raventos R. M., Serra-Majem L., Pintó X., Basora J., Muñoz M. A., Sorlí J. V., Martínez J. A., Martínez-González M. A. Primary prevention of cardiovascular disease with a mediterranean diet. N Engl J Med. 2013;368:1279–1290.
Wu L., Piotrowski K., Rau T., Waldmann E., Broedl U. C., Demmelmair H., Koletzko B., Stark R. G., Nagel J. M., Mantzoros C. S., Parhofer K. G. Walnut-enriched diet reduces fasting non-HDL-cholesterol and apolipoprotein B in healthy Caucasian subjects: a randomized controlled cross-over clinical trial. Metabolism. 2014;63:382–391.
Hegele R. A., Ginsberg H. N., Chapman M. J., Nordestgaard B. G., Kuivenhoven J. A., Averna M., Borén J., Bruckert E., Catapano A. L., Descamps O. S., Hovingh G. K., Humphries S. E., Kovanen P. T., Masana L., Pajukanta P., Parhofer K. G., Raal F. J., Ray K. K., Santos R. D., Stalenhoef A. F., Stroes E., Taskinen M. R., Tybjærg-Hansen A., Watts G. F., Wiklund O. European Atherosclerosis Society Consensus Panel, author. The polygenic nature of hypertriglyceridaemia: implications for definition, diagnosis, and management. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol. 2014;2:655–666.
Lobelo, F.; Muth, N.D.; Hanson, S.; Nemeth, B.A.; LaBella, C.R.; Brooks, M.A.; Canty, G.; Diamond, A.B.; Hennrikus, W.; Logan, K.; et al. Physical Activity Assessment and Counseling in Pediatric Clinical Settings. Pediatrics 2020, 145, e20193992.
West, S.L.; Banks, L.; Schneiderman, J.E.; Caterini, J.E.; Stephens, S.; White, G.; Dogra, S.; Wells, G.D. Physical Activity for Children with Chronic Disease; a Narrative Review and Practical Applications. BMC Pediatr. 2019, 19, 12.
Hind, K.; Burrows, M. Weight-Bearing Exercise and Bone Mineral Accrual in Children and Adolescents: A Review of Controlled Trials. Bone 2007, 40, 14–27.
Fiorentino, R.; Chiarelli, F. Treatment of Dyslipidaemia in Children. Biomedicines 2021, 9, 1078.
LeBlanc, A.G.; Janssen, I. Dose-Response Relationship between Physical Activity and Dyslipidemia in Youth. Can. J. Cardiol. 2010, 26, e201–e205.
Piercy, K.L.; Troiano, R.P.; Ballard, R.M.; Carlson, S.A.; Fulton, J.E.; Galuska, D.A.; George, S.M.; Olson, R.D. The Physical Activity Guidelines for Americans. JAMA 2018, 320, 2020.
Stewart, Jeremy, et al. "Hyperlipidemia." Pediatrics in review 41.8 (2020): 393-402.
Stewart, J., McCallin, T., Martinez, J., Chacko, S., & Yusuf, S. (2020). Hyperlipidemia. Pediatrics in review, 41(8), 393-402.
Franco M, Cooper RS, Bilal U, Fuster V. Challenges and opportunities for cardiovascular disease prevention. Am J Med 2011;124:95-102.
Arnett DK, Blumenthal RS, Albert MA, et al. 2019 ACC/AHA guideline on the primary prevention of cardiovascular disease: a report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Clinical Practice Guidelines. Circulation 2019;140:e596-616.
Stewart, J., McCallin, T., Martinez, J., Chacko, S. and Yusuf, S., 2020. Hyperlipidemia. Pediatrics in review, 41(8), pp.393-402.
Fiorentino R. and Chiarelli F., Treatment of dyslipidaemia in children, Biomedicines. (2021) 9, no. 9,
Stewart J, McCallin T, Martinez J, Chacko S, Yusuf S. Hyperlipidemia. Pediatrics in review. 2020 Aug 1;41(8):393-402.
Catapano AL, Graham I, De Backer G, Wiklund O, Chapman MJ, Drexel H, Hoes AW, Jennings CS, Landmesser U, Pedersen TR, Reiner Ž, Riccardi G, Taskinen MR, Tokgozoglu L, Verschuren WMM, Vlachopoulos C, Wood DA, Zamorano JL, Cooney MT., ESC Scientific Document Group. 2016 ESC/EAS Guidelines for the Management of Dyslipidaemias. Eur Heart J. 2016 Oct 14;37(39):2999-3058.
Fiorentino R. and Chiarelli F., Treatment of dyslipidaemia in children, Biomedicines. (2021) 9, no. 9,
Ballantyne CM, Grundy SM, Oberman A, Kreisberg RA, Havel RJ, Frost PH, Haffner SM. Hyperlipidemia: diagnostic and therapeutic perspectives. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2000 Jun;85(6):2089-112.
Vodnala D, Rubenfire M, Brook RD. Secondary causes of dyslipidemia. Am J Cardiol. 2012 Sep 15;110(6):823-5.
Framingham Heart Study. Cardiovascular disease (10-year risk). Accessed February 14, 2023.
Vinson A, Guerra L, Hamilton L, Wilson DP. Fnla. Reverse Cascade Screening for Familial Hypercholesterolemia. J Pediatr Nurs. 2019;44:50–55.
Chhetry M, Jialal I et al. Lipid-Lowering Drug Therapy. [Updated 2023 Aug 28]. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2024
Optimal low-density lipoprotein is 50 to 70 mg/dl: lower is better and physiologically normal. O'Keefe JH Jr, Cordain L, Harris WH, Moe RM, Vogel R. 2004;43:2142–2146.
Rubins HB, Robins SJ, Collins D, Fye CL, Anderson JW, Elam MB, Faas FH, Linares E, Schaefer EJ, Schectman G, Wilt TJ, Wittes J et al. Gemfibrozil for the secondary prevention of coronary heart disease in men with low levels of high-density lipoprotein cholesterol. Veterans Affairs High-Density Lipoprotein Cholesterol Intervention Trial Study Group. N Engl J Med. 1999; 341(6): 410-8.
Wang D, Liu B, Tao W, Hao Z, Liu M et al. Fibrates for secondary prevention of cardiovascular disease and stroke. Cochrane Database Syst 2015; (10): CD009580.
Probstfield JL, Hunninghake DB et al. Nicotinic acid as a lipoprotein-altering agent. Therapy directed by the primary physician. Arch Intern Med. 1994 Jul 25; 154(14): 1557-9
FDA clears bempedoic acid non-statin LDL-cholesterol lowering drug. [Jul;2021];
Handelsman Y. Role of bile acid sequestrants in the treatment of type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care. 2011 May;34 Suppl 2(Suppl 2): S244-50.
Mazidi, M.; Rezaie, P.; Karimi, E.; and Kengne, A. P. (2017): The effects of bile acid sequestrants on lipid profile and blood glucose concentrations: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled Int. J. Cardiol, 227: 850-857.
Martin B, G.; and MBHickey, D. (1994): Bile acid sequestrants. Expert Opin Investig Drugs, 3: 493-500.
Tonstad, S.; Knudtzon, J.; Sivertsen, M.; Refsum, H.; and Ose, L. (1996): Efficacy and safety of cholestyramine therapy in peripubertal and prepubertal children with familial hypercholesterolemia. J. Pediatr, 129: 42-49.
Steinmetz, K. L.; and Schonder, K. S. (2005): Colesevelam: potential uses for the newest bile resin. Cardiovasc. Drug Rev, 23: 15-30.
Waller J. R., Waller D. G. Drugs for lipid disorders, antiplatelet drugs and fibrinolytics. Medicine. 2014;42:544–548.
Dias S., Paredes S., Ribeiro L. Drugs involved in dyslipidemia and obesity treatment: focus on adipose tissue. Int. J. Endocrinol. 2018;4:2637418.
Maurya, A.; Singh, A.K.; Mishra, G.; Kumari, K.; Rai, A.; Sharma, B.; Kulkarni, G.T.; Awasthi, R. Strategic use of nanotechnology in drug targeting and its consequences on human health: A focused review. Interv. Med. Appl. Sci. 2019, 11, 38–54.
Sharma, K.; Kumar, K.; Mishra, N. Nanoparticulate carrier system: A novel treatment approach for hyperlipidemia. Drug Deliv. 2016, 23, 684–699.
Landesman-Milo, D., Goldsmith, M., Leviatan, B. S., Witenberg, B., Brown, E., Leibovitch, S., et al. (2013). Hyaluronan grafted lipid-based nanoparticles as RNAi carriers for cancer cells. Cancer Lett. 334, 221–227.
Yingchoncharoen, P., Kalinowski, D. S., and Richardson, D. R. (2016). Lipid-based drug delivery systems in cancer therapy: what is available and what is yet to come. Pharmacol. Rev. 68, 701–787.
Ou, L.C.; Zhong, S.; Ou, J.S.; Tian, J.W. Application of targeted therapy strategies with nanomedicine delivery for atherosclerosis. Acta Pharmacol. Sin. 2021, 42, 10–17.
Katsuki, S.; Matoba, T.; Koga, J.I.; Nakano, K.; Egashira, K. Anti-inflammatory Nanomedicine for Cardiovascular Disease. Front. Cardiovasc. Med. 2017, 4, 87.
W.Zhao,X.Jin, Y. Cong, Y. Liu, J. Fu, Degradable natural polymer hydrogels for articular cartilage tissue engineering, J. Chem. Technol. Biotechnol. 88 (2013) 327–339
MicroMedex. “DRUGDEX® (2008), Evaluations—Niacin”. New Hersey: Thomson Healthcare.
Jain, A., and Jain, S. K. (2018). Stimuli-responsive smart liposomes in cancer targeting. Curr. Drug Targets 19, 259–270.
Elsabahy, M., and Wooley, K. L. (2012). Design of polymeric nanoparticles for biomedical delivery applications. Chem. Soc. Rev. 41, 2545–2561.
Cagel, M., Tesan, F. C., Bernabeu, E., Salgueiro, M. J., Zubillaga, M. B., Moretton, M. A., et al. (2017). Polymeric mixed micelles as nanomedicines: achievements and perspectives. Eur. J. Pharm. Biopharm. 113, 211–228.
Mark R. Prausnitzand Robert LangerNatBiotechnol, Transdermal drug delivery, Nat Biotechnol. 2008 26(11): 1261–1268.
Sandhya rani Mandadi, Vishwanadhamyerraguntaformulation and evaluation of atorvastatin calcium sustained release tablets, 2006, 6(3):124-130 ·
Ghaywat, S.D.; Mate, P.S.; Parsutkar, Y.M.; Chandimeshram, A.D.; Umekar, M.J. Overview of nanogel and its applications. GSC Biol. Pharm. Sci. 2021, 16, 040–061.
Cuggino, J.C.; Blanco, E.R.; Gugliotta, L.M.; Igarzabal, C.I.; Calderón, M. Crossing biological barriers with nanogels to improve drug delivery performance. J. Control. Release 2019, 307, 221–246.
Sharma, A.; Garg, T.; Aman, A.; Panchal, K.; Sharma, R.; Kumar, S.; Markandeywar, T. Nanogel—An advanced drug delivery tool: Current and future. Artif. Cells Nanomed. Biotechnol. 2016, 44, 165–177.
Aungst BJ. Novel formulation strategies for improving oral bioavailability of drugs with poor membrane permeation or presystemic metabolism. J Pharm Sci. 1993;82:979–87.
Müller RH, Mäder K, Gohla S. Solid lipid nanoparticles (SLN) for controlled drug delivery: A review of the state of the art. Eur J Pharm Biopharm. 2000;50:161–77.
Boddupalli, B.M., Mohammed, Z.N., Nath, R.A. and Banji, D., (2010). Mucoadhesive drug delivery system: An overview. J. Adv. Pharm. Technol. Res,1(4), p.381.
Alawdi, S. and Solanki, A.B.,(2021). Mucoadhesive drug delivery systems: A review of recent developments. Int. J. Biol. Sci., 2(1),50-64.
Jovanović M, Tomić N, Cvijić S, Stojanović, D., Ibrić, S. and Uskoković, P., (2021). Mucoadhesive gelatin buccal films with propranolol hydrochloride: Evaluation of mechanical, mucoadhesive, and biopharmaceutical properties. Pharma ceutics.,13(2):273
Kumar, A M et al. 2019. “A Review on Mucoadhesive Drug Delivery Systems.” Research Journal of Pharmaceutical Dosage Forms and Technology 11(4): 280–87.
K. K.Ray, R. S. Wright, D. Kallend et al., “Two phase 3 trials of inclisiran in patients with elevated LDL cholesterol,” New England Journal of Medicine, vol. 382, no. 16, pp. 1507–1519, 2020.
Deshkar, S.S.; Sonkamble, K.G.; Mahore, J.G. Formulation and Optimization of Nanosuspension for Improving Solubility and Dissolution of Gemfibrozil. Asian J. Pharm. Clin. Res. 2019, 12, 157–163.
Hong, J.Y.; Kim, J.K.; Song, Y.K.; Park, J.S.; Kim, C.K. A new self-emulsifying formulation of itraconazole with improved dissolution and oral absorption. J. Control. Release 2006, 110, 332–338.
Singh, S.K.; Verma, P.R.P.; Razdan, B. Development and characterization of a lovastatin loaded self-microemulsifying drug delivery system. Pharm. Dev. Technol. 2010, 15, 469–483.
Alqahtani, M.S.; Kazi, M.; Alsenaidy, M.A.; Ahmad, M.Z. Advances in oral drug delivery. Front. Pharm. 2021, 12, 618411.
Brown MB, Martin GP, Jones SA, Akomeah FK. Dermal and transdermal drug delivery systems: current and future prospects. Drug Deliv J Deliv Target Ther Agents. 2006;13:175–87.
Navickas, R., Gal, D., Laucevi Ius, A., Taparauskait, A., Zdanyt, M., and Holvoet, P. (2016). Identifying circulating microRNAs as biomarkers of cardiovascular disease: a systematic review. Cardiovasc. Res. 111, 322–337.
Zimmermann, T. S., Lee, A. C. H., Akinc, A., Bramlage, B., Bumcrot, D., Fedoruk, M. N., et al. (2006). RNAi-mediated gene silencing in non-human primates. Nature 441, 111–114.
Mahmoud, M.O.; Aboud, H.M.; Hassan, A.H.; Ali, A.A.; Johnston, T.P. Transdermal delivery of atorvastatin calcium from novel nanovesicular systems using polyethylene glycol fatty acid esters: Ameliorated effect without liver toxicity in poloxamer 407-induced hyperlipidemic rats. J. Control Release 2017, 254, 10–22.
Li, H.; Jing, X.; Deng, X.; Ouyang, D. Targets of anti-hyperlipidemia drugs. Zhong Nan Da Xue Xue Bao Yi Xue Ban 2013, 38, 101–108. (In Chinese)
Ludwig, A.The use of mucoadhesive polymers in ocular drug delivery. Adv. Drug Deliv. Rev. 2005, 57, 1595–1639.
Xu, H.; Xu, X.; Li, S.; Song, W.-L.; Yu, D.-G.; Annie Bligh, S.W. The Effect of Drug Heterogeneous Distributions within Core-Sheath Nanostructures on Its Sustained Release Profiles. Biomolecules 2021, 11, 1330.
Ansel, H.C.; Popovich, N.G.; Allen, L.V., Jr. Ansel’s Pharmaceutical Dosage Forms Drug Delivery Systems
Abebe, A.; Akseli, I.; Sprockel, O.; Kottala, N.; Cuitiño, A.M. Review of bilayer tablet technology. Int. J. Pharm. 2014, 461, 549–558.
Malhotra A., Shafiq N., Arora A., Singh M., Kumar R., Malhotra S. Dietary interventions (plant sterols, stanols, omega-3 fatty acids, soy protein and dietary fibers) for familial hypercholesterolaemia. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev. 2014;2014:CD001918.
Li, H.; Jing, X.; Deng, X.; Ouyang, D. Targets of anti-hyperlipidemia drugs. Zhong Nan Da Xue Xue Bao Yi Xue Ban 2013, 38, 101–108. (In Chinese)
Kwiterovich, P.O. Recognition and Management of Dyslipidemia in Children and Adolescents. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 2008, 93, 4200–4209.
Mainieri, F.; Tagi, V.M.; Chiarelli, F. Recent Advances on Familial Hypercholesterolemia in Children and Adolescents. Biomedicines 2022, 10, 1043.
Fredrickson DS. An international classification of hyperlipidemias and hyperlipoproteinemias. Ann Intern Med. 1971 Sep;75(3):471-2.
Franklin BA, Brubaker P, Harber MP, Lavie CJ, Myers J, Kaminsky LA. The Journal of Cardiopulmonary Rehabilitation and Prevention at 40 yr and Its Role in Promoting Preventive Cardiology: Part 2. J Cardiopulm Rehabil Prev. 2020 Jul;40(4):209-214.
Ogdie A, Yu Y, Haynes K, et al. Risk of major cardiovascular events in patients with psoriatic arthritis, psoriasis and rheumatoid arthritis: a population-based cohort study. Ann Rheum Dis. 2015;74(2):326–32.
Zullig LL, Melnyk SD, Stechuchak KM, et al. The cardiovascular intervention improvement telemedicine study (CITIES): rationale for a tailored behavioral and educational pharmacist-administered intervention for achieving cardiovascular disease risk reduction. Telemed J E-Health. 2014;20(2):135–43.
Corkins, M.R.; Daniels, S.R.; de Ferranti, S.D.; Golden, N.H.; Kim, J.H.; Magge, S.N.; Schwarzenberg, S.J. Nutrition in Children and Adolescents. Med. Clin. North Am. 2016, 100, 1217–1235.
Heart Protection Study Collaborative Group. MRC/BHF Heart Protection Study of cholesterol lowering with simvastatin in 20,536 high-risk individuals: a randomised placebo-controlled trial. Lancet. 2002;360(9326):7–22.
Sever P.S., Dahlöf B., Poulter N.R., Wedel H., Beevers G., Caulfield M., Collins R., Kjeldsen S.E., Kristinsson A., McInnes G.T., Mehlsen J., Nieminen M., O’Brien E., Ostergren J. ASCOT investigators. Prevention of coronary and stroke events with atorvastatin in hypertensive patients who have average or lower-than-average cholesterol concentrations, in the Anglo-Scandinavian Cardiac Outcomes Trial-Lipid Lowering Arm (ASCOT-LLA): a multicentre randomised controlled trial. Lancet. 2003;361(9364):1149–1158.
Sacks F.M., Pfeffer M.A., Moye L.A., Rouleau J.L., Rutherford J.D., Cole T.G., Brown L., Warnica J.W., Arnold J.M., Wun C.C., Davis B.R., Braunwald E. The effect of pravastatin on coronary events after myocardial infarction in patients with average cholesterol levels. Cholesterol and Recurrent Events Trial investigators. N. Engl. J. Med. 1996;335(14):1001–1009.
Collaboration P.S. Cholesterol, diastolic blood pressure, and stroke: 13,000 strokes in 450,000 people in 45 prospective cohorts. Prospective studies collaboration. Lancet. 1995;346(8991-8992):1647–1653.
The Lipid Research Clinics Coronary Primary Prevention Trial results. I. Reduction in incidence of coronary heart disease. JAMA. 1984;251(3):351–364.
Khera A.V., Demler O.V., Adelman S.J., Collins H.L., Glynn R.J., Ridker P.M., Rader D.J., Mora S. Cholesterol Efflux Capacity, High-Density Lipoprotein Particle Number, and Incident Cardiovascular Events: An Analysis From the JUPITER Trial (Justification for the Use of Statins in Prevention: An Intervention Trial Evaluating Rosuvastatin). Circulation. 2017;135(25):2494–2504.
Maximizing the benefits of cholesterol-lowering drugs. Feingold KR. Curr Opin Lipidol. 2019;30:388–394.
Ezetimibe added to statin therapy after acute coronary syndromes. Cannon CP, Blazing MA, Giugliano RP, et al. N Engl J Med. 2015 ;372:2387–2397.
Pearson GJ, Thanassoulis G, Anderson TJ, et al. Canadian J Cardiol. Vol. 37. W; 2021. 2021 Canadian Cardiovascular Society Guidelines for the Management of Dyslipidemia for the Prevention of Cardiovascular Disease in Adults; pp. 1129–1150
P.M. Ridker, B. Everett, T. Thuren, for the CANTOS Trial Group, et al., Anti-inflammatory therapy with canakinumab for atherosclerotic disease, N. Engl. J. Med. 377 (2017) 1119–1131.
P. Ridker, P. Libby, MacFadyen, et al., Modulation of the interleukin-6 signalling pathway and incidence rates of atherosclerotic events and all-cause mortality: analyses from the Canakinumab anti-inflammatory thrombosis outcomes study (CANTOS), Eur. Heart J. 39 (2018) 3499–3507.
J.C. Tardif, S. Kouz, D.D. Waters, et al., Efficacy and safety of low-dose colchicine after myocardial infarction, N. Engl. J. Med. 381 (2019) 2497–2505.
S.M. Nidorf, A.T.L. Fiolet, A. Mosterd, for the LoDoCo2 Trial Investigators, et al., Colchicine in patients with chronic coronary disease, N. Engl. J. Med. 383 (2020) 1838–1847.
K. Nelson, V. Fuster, P.M. Ridker, Low-dose colchicine for secondary prevention of coronary artery disease: JACC review topic of the week, J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 82 (2023) 648–660.
T. Opstal, A. Fiolet, A. van Broekhoven, A. Mosterd, J.W. Eikelboom, S.M. Nidorf, P.L. Thompson, M. Duyvendak, J.W.M. van Eck, et al., Colchicine in patients with chronic coronary disease in relation to prior acute coronary syndrome, J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 78 (2021) 859–866.
Published
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2025 Richa Chandra, Dr. Pratima Katiyar, Dr. Kalpana Kushwaha (Author)
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
You are free to:
- Share — copy and redistribute the material in any medium or format for any purpose, even commercially.
- Adapt — remix, transform, and build upon the material for any purpose, even commercially.
- The licensor cannot revoke these freedoms as long as you follow the license terms.
Under the following terms:
- Attribution — You must give appropriate credit , provide a link to the license, and indicate if changes were made . You may do so in any reasonable manner, but not in any way that suggests the licensor endorses you or your use.
- No additional restrictions — You may not apply legal terms or technological measures that legally restrict others from doing anything the license permits.
Notices:
You do not have to comply with the license for elements of the material in the public domain or where your use is permitted by an applicable exception or limitation .
No warranties are given. The license may not give you all of the permissions necessary for your intended use. For example, other rights such as publicity, privacy, or moral rights may limit how you use the material.
