The Emerging FGF21 Axis in Thyroid Eye Disease: Metabolic–Immune Crosstalk and Therapeutic Perspectives
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.48047/n0mwx095Keywords:
fibroblast growth factor 21, thyroid eye disease, orbital fibroblasts, immunometabolismAbstract
Background: Thyroid eye disease (TED) is an organ-specific autoimmune disorder characterized by orbital inflammation, fibroblast
activation, extracellular matrix expansion, adipogenesis, extraocular muscle enlargement, and progressive tissue remodeling. Although thyrotropin receptor and insulin-like growth factor-1 receptor signaling remain central to current models of TED pathogenesis, increasing evidence indicates that metabolic stress, oxidative injury, mitochondrial dysfunction
Downloads
References
Wiersinga WM, Eckstein AK, Žarković M. Thyroid eye disease (Graves' orbitopathy): clinical presentation, epidemiology, pathogenesis, and management. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol. 2025;13(7):600-614. doi:10.1016/S2213-8587(25)00066-X.
Bartalena L, Kahaly GJ, Baldeschi L, et al. The 2021 European Group on Graves' Orbitopathy (EUGOGO) clinical practice guidelines for the medical management of Graves' orbitopathy. Eur J Endocrinol. 2021;185(4):G43-G67. doi:10.1530/EJE-21-0479.
Downloads
Published
Issue
Section
License
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
You are free to:
- Share — copy and redistribute the material in any medium or format for any purpose, even commercially.
- Adapt — remix, transform, and build upon the material for any purpose, even commercially.
- The licensor cannot revoke these freedoms as long as you follow the license terms.
Under the following terms:
- Attribution — You must give appropriate credit , provide a link to the license, and indicate if changes were made . You may do so in any reasonable manner, but not in any way that suggests the licensor endorses you or your use.
- No additional restrictions — You may not apply legal terms or technological measures that legally restrict others from doing anything the license permits.
Notices:
You do not have to comply with the license for elements of the material in the public domain or where your use is permitted by an applicable exception or limitation .
No warranties are given. The license may not give you all of the permissions necessary for your intended use. For example, other rights such as publicity, privacy, or moral rights may limit how you use the material.
